This paper discusses methods of using virtual prototyping to assist with the development and customization of rehabilitation products. The difficulty of designing equipment for individuals with physical disabilities is that each individual presents a unique neuro-physiological picture. This research explores ways in which virtual device design and evaluation can be combined with new techniques in rapid prototyping to create efficient rehabilitation devices.

Robotics in rehabilitation

Robotics in rehabilitation provide considerable opportunities to improve the quality of life for physically disabled people. However, practical results are limited, mainly due to the need for developing new robotics concepts where people are working together with robots, as opposed to industrial robots where they are working in separated areas. This paper reveals some of the developments needed and presents two projects currently underway at Lund University. The first one is concerned with end-effector design for a robotic workstation for office-based tasks, while the second is concerned with a mobile robotic system for use in medical and chemical laboratories by disabled people. Both projects show promising results. There is also a need for further research in developing new robotic systems for use in rehabilitation with new mechanical features, as well as programming and control suitable for any user.

A novel mobility aid for independent daily living of elderly people

Older people which often suffer from combined multiple functional restrictions of a lower degree want to retain an independent lifestyle at home and thus need to manage their domestic activities. Within the TELEMATICS sector of the European Commission, the ongoing project MOBIL will address their problem and provide combined support for walking, assistance with carrying, and compensation of memory loss. Dependent on the individual requirements MOBIL can be configured as low-cost/low-complexity or highly integrated system. The concept is strictly modular, user and market oriented and will improve the situation for home based care of older people with disabilities.

Development of robots for rehabilitation therapy: The Palo Alto VA/Stanford experience

For over 25 years, personal assistant robots for severely disabled individuals have been in development. More recently, using robots to deliver rehabilitation therapy has been proposed. This paper summarizes the development and clinical testing of three mechatronic systems for post-stroke therapy conducted at the VA Palo Alto in collaboration with Stanford University. We describe the philosophy and experiences that guided their evolution. Unique to the Palo Alto approach is provision for bimanual, mirror-image, patient-controlled therapeutic exercise. Proof-of-concept was established with a 2-degree-of-freedom (DOF) elbow/forearm manipulator. Tests of a second-generation therapy robot producing planar forearm movements in 19 hemiplegic and control subjects confirmed the validity and reliability of interaction forces during mechanically assisted upper-limb movements. Clinical trials comparing 3-D robot-assisted therapy to traditional therapy in 21 chronic stroke subjects showed significant improvement in the Fugl-Meyer (FM) measure of motor recovery in the robot group, which exceeded improvements in the control group.

The design and control of assistive devices

The design of assistive robotic devices and their controlling interfaces has to be undertaken carefully. If designed appropriately, they can help provide vocational opportunities to those with the mental faculty to perform useful tasks, but whose physical impairments would otherwise prohibit their employment. However, the current emphasis of design is dominated largely by the logistics of system development rather than on study of how the specifications of such systems determine their ultimate usability. It is widely acknowledged that this approach is flawed. This paper describes the development of a new user-centred design approach aimed at overcoming this problem.

Treadmill training of paraplegic patients using a robotic orthosis

Recent studies have confirmed that regular treadmill training can improve walking capabilities in incomplete spinal cord-injured subjects. At the beginning of this training the leg movements of the patients have to be assisted by physiotherapists during gait on the moving treadmill. The physical capabilities and the individual experience of the therapists usually limit this training. A driven gait orthosis (DGO) has been developed that can move the legs of a patient in a physiological way on the moving treadmill. The orthosis is adjustable in size so different patients can use it. Actuators at the knee and hip joints are controlled by a position controller. With the DGO the legs of patients with different degrees of paresis and spasticity could be trained for more than half an hour, and physiological gait patterns were obtained.

Robot enhanced interaction and learning for children with profound physical disabilities

The goal of this study was to explore how children with significant physical difficulties could use a robotic arm to interact in a play and exploration activity. These children cannot manipulate toys and other objects to engage in typical play activities with adults or their peers. The robotic are can provide an alternative method to engage in joint play activities. Using a robotic arm, children who have physical disabilities are able to engage in play with an adult when manipulation of objects in sequence and turn taking with the adult are necessary for successful play experiences. Children are able to experience, independently for the first time, the manipulation of real objects in the context of a play activity.

Robot-enhanced discovery and exploration for very young children with disabilities

The goal of this research is to investigate whether young children who have physical disabilities will be able to use a robotic arm for exploration and discovery. These children have difficulty in manipulating toys and other objects, and the robotic arm can provide an alternative method to accomplish these manipulation tasks. Using a robotic arm, children who have physical disabilities are able to engage in a manipulative activity involving a sequence of steps. They are able to experience, independently for the first time, the manipulation of real objects.

The RAID workstation for office environments

This paper describes the development of a robotic workstation for use by individuals with little or no upper limb function in office environments. The technical features of the workstation are presented and details of the evaluation process are noted. The demonstrator workstation is specifically configured for applications in Computer Aided Design (CAD).

CURL - today and tomorrow

This paper describes the Cambridge University Robot Language (CURL) in its current form and looks towards the future of the software. Recent and forthcoming applications of CURL are summarised. Enhancements in the areas of human-computer interfacing, device-level configuration and sensor integration are proposed.

The application of rehabilitation robotics within manufacturing industry

This paper describes the procedures adopted in the installation and evaluation of a prototype robotic manipulator within a manufacturing environment. The requirements and issues associated with the installation are contrasted with those evident within an office environment. The operation of the robotic system and its component parts are described. The recruitment of operators and the employment mechanisms involved are also discussed. An evaluation procedure has been developed to assess the performance of the robotic equipment with respect to existing practices.

The user interface for interactive robotic workstations

The importance of the user interface within interactive robotic workstations is examined and design criteria are discussed. The command of an interactive robotic device is considered as a direct manipulation system and the potential benefits of graphical user interfaces for such systems are outlined. Aspects of current work in user interface design are introduced in the context of the Cambridge University Robot Language (CURL). Interface development tools and evaluation techniques are described. Finally, the future of robot user interfaces is examined with respect to recent advances in computing technology.

Rehabilitation robotics in Europe

This paper provides a summary of European work in Rehabilitation Robotics. The historical background to current work in this field is described. The European Union's TIDE funding initiative is introduced and recent projects established under this initiative are summarized. The practical effect of TIDE on the European market for rehabilitation equipment is discussed. European projects funded from other sources are also described. The paper concludes with an assessment of the future direction for research and developement in rehabilitation robotics.

Human-computer interaction within robotic workstations

This paper describes recent research in human-computer interfaces for the command of rehabilitation robot systems. An iconic interface providing drag and drop interaction has been developed. This interface integrates with the Cambridge University Robot Language (CURL) to facilitate intuitive operation of structured robotic workstations by users of pointing input devices. The evaluation of this interface is presented in the context of experimental work with a number of alternative user interfaces.

Component software for applications in rehabilitation robotics

Object-enabling system software facilitates the construction of complete software solutions using prefabricated executable components. The potential benefits of this technology in the field of Rehabilitation Robotics are discussed. Specific features of Microsoft OLE are introduced and a technology demonstrator based on this software is described. The demonstrator makes extensive use of existing software components to enhance functionality and reduce development costs.

Contribution to the development of an open software architecture for the robotic Manus arm

Many development in the rehabilitation robotics field have lead to some encouraging robotic arms. They were developed to give more autonomy to persons with sever physical disability and to perform tasks in their daily lives. The Manus manipulator is one of these robotic devices, which is mounted on a wheelchair and allows the disabled users to perform tasks manually in an non-structured environment. In spite of the efficiency of the robotic arm Manus, proved by some user to perform certain prehensile and manipulation tasks, this assistive device is still not accessible to a large population of handicapped people. Indeed, Complex tasks, involving important arm displacements and gripper orientations, performed with such a robotic arm require an excellent dexterity not available among people with severe disabilities. Additionally encouraging the disabled to interact with human-robot interfaces can be challenging, especially when these interfaces are not necessarily adapted to their various handicaps. In this paper, we addressed both points by describing our contribution to the development of a new open architecture for Manus. A high level approach for the human-robot interface is introduced and new functions of the Human Machine Interface (HMI) layer are proposed.

A prototype for interactive robotics application development

A number of techniques, grouped under the general umbrella term of usability inspection, have been devised in recent years to help software developers focus more closely on the needs of end-users during development of interactive applications. Central to the use of such methods is the question of how proposals can be tested before a finished system has been implemented. This paper discusses the role of high and low-fidelity prototypes used for this purpose in software development and proposes the use of a 'variable-fidelity' prototype as an aid to the development of interactive robotic systems. The approach is explored and illustrated through the example application of an Interactive Robotic Visual Inspection system developed for use by a person with limited physical manipulation skills.

RAID - a robotic workstation for the disabled

The aim of the RAID project (Robot for Assisting the Integration of the Disabled) is to develop and demonstrate a prototype robotic workstation for use by disabled people. The RAID project is part of the European Community TIDE program (Technology for the socio-economic Integration of disabled and Elderly people). The robotized system is intended primarily for vocational use in an office environment. The selected application for the demonstration in March 1993 is CAD (Computer Aided Design), which is an application full of handling tasks for the robot. If the robot is capable of doing all these tasks satisfactory, a number of other applications can be extracted form the CAD application. A key feature of RAID is the emphasis on user requirements.

Robot control methods and results from user trials on the RAID workstation

CERTEC intends to develop an autonomous grasping function, but first user requirements have to be studied. Therefore, user trials have been carried out on the RAID workstation (Robot to Assist the Integration of the Disabled) at the Rehabcentrum Lund-Orup in Höör, Sweden. This paper will describe the control methods used in these trials as well as the results of the trials.

Instrumentation of the HANDY 1 for oral-motor therapy

Self feeding is a critical ability for independent living. Anecdotal evidence with the HANDY 1 feeding aid suggests that use of the device facilitated self feeding in several children. The Enabling Technologies Laboratory and the Detroit Institute for Children are collaborating on a study to test the efficacy of the HANDY 1 as a therapeutic tool for oral-motor dysfunctions. The HANDY 1 was not designed for this role. An instrumentation package for the HANDY 1 has been designed to provide the data collection, systems setup, and user friendly I/O necessary for therapeutic use in a clinic setting. The instrumentation package is described and preliminary field test experiences reported.

PARTNER - a semi-autonomous mobile service robot in a wireless network for biomedical applications

As a technological transfer from a TIDE project (MOVAID), a multi-functional mobile robot has been designed and brought to market applications in the biomedical field. It can carry out simple transportation missions either in an autonomus way, according to a schedule, or on demand, reacting to explicit requests coming from the local intranet via an infrared link.

Technological solutions to autonomous robot control

The paper discusses the possibilities of rehabilitation robots for elderly and disabled people under the important aspect of (semi) autonomous robot control, which plays a key role in acceptance and economic profitability. Due to the financial restrictions in this area, the user interface, the wheelchair, the robotarm, the necessary sensors and the control units are quite different compared with industrial robots. The whole control structure has to be redesigned under the needs of the target group and the financial restrictions. In the paper typical scenarios for the application of these robots and new scientific results are presented, esp. for:

• The control of redundant robots ( a wheelchair with a robot arm has at least 9 DOF )
• The robot arm control based on computer vision and image algebra to identify typical ob-jects and visual servoing, to move the gripper to the object
• The structure of a control unit and a possible new programming method, programming by demonstration.

The paper will also identify key problem areas and necessary developments to enlarge the usability to a wider circle of users.

The role of assessment and evaluation in rehabilitation robotics R&D: moving from concept to clinic to context

The role of assessment is a critical component of the assistive technology research and development process which serves to link engineers, clinicians, and individuals with disabilities. This paper provides a clinical perspective and discusses the process used to evaluate the feasability and viability of several rehabilitation robotics systems developed at the Palo Alto Veterans Affairs Medical Center/Stanford University.

An affordable mobile robotic manipulator

A robotic manipulator has been mounted on a wheeled trolley. This novel approach aims to overcome some of the limitations of a fixed site workstation system, while keeping the cost within reasonable limits. Preliminary user experience with the system is encouraging.

Design of a wheelchair mounted robot

This paper describes the development of a wheelchair mounted robot. The design utilises an existing manipulator designed for use by severely disabled persons previously mounted upon a non-powered portable base. The new design addresses the particular requirements of powered wheelchair users in terms of the tasks they would like to perform using the robot, the acceptable effects of mounting a robot to a powered wheelchair and visual impact. The manipulator has been attached to an extending mast mounted upon the side of the wheelchair close to the back wheel. A joystick control interface has been developed and a new end effector has been designed and built. Potential users of the device were consulted throughout the design process.

Multimodally controlled intelligent assistive robot

The Multimodal User Supervised Interface and Intelligent Control (MUSIIC) project is working towards the development of an assistive robotic system which integrates human-computer interaction with reactive planning techniques borrowed from artificial intelligence. The MUSIIC system is intended to operate in an unstructured environment, rather than in a structured workcell, allowing users with physical disabili- ties considerable freedom and flexibility in terms of control and operating ease. This paper reports on the current status of the MUSIIC project.

The role of user modelling in rehabilitation robotics

Most existing user models concentrate specifically on able-bodied users interacting with computers. This paper examines the relevance of such models to Rehabilitation Robotics and the implications for practitioners in the field. It addresses current research to adapt such models specifically to rehabilitation applications, including observations from extensive user trials.

Designing a usable interface for an interactive robot

The traditional emphasis of Rehabilitation Robotics has been dominated largely by the logistics of system development rather than how to maximise overall system usability. The research programme at Cambridge has focused on the shortcomings of this approach and the identification of strategies for placing the user exclusively at the centre of the design process. This paper describes the re-design of the interface for an Interactive Robotic Visual Inspection System (IRVIS) and how this was used to formulate a structured, methodical approach to user-centred interface design. A discussion of the original IRVIS interface design will be presented, followed by a description of current usability theory and its role in formulating the proposed five-level user-centred design approach. The results of the evaluation of this approach, through user trials, will also be discussed.

Increasing productivity and quality of care: Robot-aided neuro-rehabilitation

This paper presents an overview of our research in robot-aided stroke neuro-rehabilitation and recovery. At the onset of this research we had to confront squarely (and solve!) a critical question: If anatomy is destiny, can we influence it? Our efforts over the last five years have been focused on answering this question and we will present a few of our clinical results from over 2,000 hours of robot-aided therapy with 76 stroke patients. To determine if exercise therapy influences plasticity and recovery of the brain following a stroke, we needed the appropriate "microscope" that would allow us to concomitantly control the amount of therapy delivered to a patient, while objectively measuring patient's performance. Back-driveable robots are the key enabling technology. Our results to date using common clinical scales suggest that robot-aided sensorimotor training does have a genuinely positive effect on reduction of impairment and the reorganization of the adult brain. Yet while clinical scales can help us to examine the impact in the neuro-recovery process, their coarse nature requires extensive and time-consuming trials, and on top of that they fail to show us details important for optimizing therapy. Alternative, robot-based scales offer the potential benefit of new finer measurements--and deeper insight into the process of recovery from neurological injury. We also plan to use present technology to establish the practicality and economic feasibility of clinician-supervised, robot-administered therapy, including classroom therapy. We feel quite optimistic that the march of progress will accelerate substantially in the near future and allow us to transfer this technology from the research realm to the everyday treatment of stroke survivors.

Clinical experience with an intelligent prosthetic hand

While the level of technology in rehabilitation aids has increased over the past ten years their inclusion in prosthetics system has generally lagged behind that of the rest of the field. This paper presents work conducted in Oxford over the past four years to create a sophisticated artificial hand for use in the clinical setting. The use of a microprocessor in the system means that the operator need only to supervise the actions of the hand while the microprocessor controls the low level reflexes of grip force and shape. The training is based on a graphical computer interface.

User involvement in the design and evaluation of a smart mobility aid

This paper describes the design and evaluation of an innovative smart mobility aid for the frail visually impaired. The Personal Adaptive Mobility AID (PAM-AID) was developed to address the difficulties in personal mobility of the frail and elderly visually impaired. The paper provides an overview of the PAM-AID research at Trinity College and describes the evolutionary nature of the design process. Because there were no existing systems to guide its development, a series of prototypes was constructed and they were regularly evaluated in the field. This approach views potential users as vital contributing members of the design team and led to rapid and hopefully useful improvements in the design.

Tele-Service-Robot: integrating the socio-technical framework of human service through the InterNet-World-Wide-Web

In a recent survey of robotics in rehabilitative human service, Stanger et al. (1994) re-establish the central role of task assessment in defining technical R&D priorities. Among their key findings, and central to the thesis of this paper, is the re-affirmation that: 1) robot usage is a "social activity"; 2) there are several users in any given environment; 3) the physically impaired person is but one of several stock-holders; 4) field support for robotics technology will be the competitive advantage in service robotics; and 5) cost is the only real driver for the adoption of robotics technology over equivalent human service. Engineers and scientists, intent on being helpful, must first assess just who is being served; where they are, what they are trying to do and who is going to pay for it.

VIPRR: a virtually in person rehabilitation robot

A mandate in Rehabilitation Robotics is to disseminate R&D to the public and to scientists around the world. The World Wide Web (WWW) has become the medium of choice for this activity, especially for text and graphics . As the WWW has matured, sharing of other forms of data, like sound and video, has become possible. In this paper, we describe an interactive WWW video-camera-tele-robot that is unique in its ability to be remotely controlled by any web browser. Controls include camera position, orientation, zoom and image parameters. VIPRR allows people with severe physical limitations to visit the R&D lab anytime, from anywhere, to see what is going on and, by arrangement, to test-drive rehabilitation robots under development. Through this technology, the developer gains an extra-ordinary opportunity to obtain user, clinician and developer feedback, just-in-time.

The use of a robotic device for post-stroke movement therapy

In post-stroke upper-extremity movement therapy, a therapist uses passive and active assisted strategies to exercise the limb and assess the patient's recovery. The MIME project has developed a robot for patient-initiated, therapist-supervised movement therapy. This paper presents preliminary results to show that MIME can quantify therapy sessions and can show correlation with accepted clinical measures of functional outcomes.

A multi-purpose rehabilitation frame: A novel apparatus for balance training during standing of neurologically impaired individuals

We present a novel mechanical apparatus, named Multi-purpose Rehabilitation Frame (MRF), and methods for balance training during standing of neurologically impaired individuals. The device has two degrees of freedom (DOF), which allow for constrained movement of both lower limbs and pelvis in the sagittal and frontal planes. The MRF aims at improving balancing in impaired individuals by providing a stiffness support and action of perturbations, which facilitate development of alternative balancing strategies. The level of stiffness support and strength of perturbations, which are generated by means of two hydraulic servo-controlled actuators, can be selected according to current balancing abilities of an impaired individual. We further present preliminary results of nine days of balance training in two paraplegic and two incomplete tetraplegic subjects standing in the MRF. All subjects improved their balancing abilities as measured from the level of needed supporting stiffness provided by the MRF.

Sensor-based shared control of a rehabilitation manipulation system

This paper describes the implementation and evaluation of sensor-based shared control algorithms in a rehabilitation manipulation system. Quantitative and qualitative results of user trials with the system are presented, and the implications of these results are discussed.

Toward a multimodal environment for learning robot manipulation by people with severe disabilities

The project is to find out a method of analyzing motors capabilities of disabled people. We are working on a 3D method for measuring motor capabilities when acting on different Man/Machine interfaces by the use of the Spatial Tracking System (Polhemus Fastrack). We have developed a software program to record the 3D movement and represent the trajectory on-line of each sensors and the movement on line in 3D. An off-line analysis is also provided. This paper describes a method under development which consist of using Polhemus sensors when manipulating an arm robot and representing the trajectory of the working point on-line during the movement. 3D audioguided end effector movement when reaching a target in space is also provided. The ultimate aim of this project is to improve the visual and audio feedback when applying robotics technology to assist people with severe disabilities in the task of learning to operate an arm robot.

WALKY, an ultrasonic navigating mobile robot for the disabled

A mobile robot system, called WALKY, is being developed to work in laboratory environments (typically chemical, medical and biological) for people with disabilities. This will increase the working possibilities, which is normally limited to office type work. We have found three different work-stations which are suitable for robotization:

• microscoping, for example cell examination, cell and chromosome counting.
• blood group determination
• culture analysing.

A mobile robot system, called WALKY, is being developed to work in laboratory environments (typically chemical, medical and biological) for people with disabilities. This will increase the working possibilities, which is normally limited to office type work. We have found three different workstations which are suitable for robotization:

• microscoping, for example cell examination, cell and chromosome counting.
• blood group determination
• culture analysing.

The ultimate aim of rehabilitation robotics research and development is the wider provision or commercialisation of the results to those members of the community who might benefit from the technology. To be attractive to either commercial or state providers, the product must have a demonstrable market in terms of meeting a defined need, and also in terms of funding, either private or state-sourced, to support not only the product itself but also the assessment, adaptation and training resources necessary to make the product work. This paper addresses several aspects of these requirements: demonstration of meeting a specified need through both subjective and objective evaluative efforts; design for production of the product; and the development of effective procedures of assessment, specification, adaptation, supply, training and backup.

Establishing initial user requirements for PAM-AID: a mobility and support device to assist frail and elderly visually impaired persons

The PAM-AID project aims to build an intelligent, indoor mobility aid for frail and elderly visually impaired people which will provide both physical and navigational support for walking. The objective is to allow users to retain their personal autonomy and also to take independent exercise. The project involves ongoing user involvement and evaluations of the developing product. The project has five distinct phases: (1) user requirements elicitation, (2) rapid prototyping, (3) construction of a demonstrator, (4) user and carer training, and (5) system validation. This paper reports on the first two phases of the project.

Obstacle avoidance module for the VAHM-2 wheelchair

The VAHM project aims at helping disabled peoples in the displacement of their wheelchair in a cluttered indoor environment. In such a project, the obstacle avoidance module is certainly one of the more important. It is used by a set of specific tasks as doorway crossing, direction following, free space finding to safety move the wheelchair in a daily environment. This paper discusses about the obstacle avoidance methodology used on the VAHM-2 wheelchair. Its behavior during a doorway crossing is detailed.

A body-powered functional upper limb orthosis

This paper describes the development and preliminary testing of a functional upper-limb orthosis for people that have limited strength in their arms. This is symptomatic of conditions such as muscular dystrophy (MD), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), and partial spinal cord injury. The exoskeletal orthosis is wheelchair mounted, has two links and four degrees of freedom. It uses linear elastic elements to balance out the effects of gravity in three dimensions. Preliminary results on testing with ten subjects will be presented.

Understanding and treating arm movement impairment after chronic brain injury: Progress with the ARM Guide

Significant potential exists for enhancing physical rehabilitation following neurologic injury through the use of robotic and mechatronic devices (or "rehabilitators"). We review the development of a rehabilitator (the "ARM Guide") to diagnose and treat arm movement impairment following stroke and other brain injuries. As a diagnostic tool, the ARM Guide provides a basis for evaluation of several key motor impairments, including abnormal tone, incoordination, and weakness. As a therapeutic tool, the device provides a means to implement and evaluate active assist therapy for the arm. Initial results with three stroke subjects demonstrate that such therapy can produce quantifiable benefits in the chronic hemiparetic arm. Directions for future research regarding the efficacy and practicality of rehabilitators are discussed.

Safety issues for kinesthetic interfaces in assistive robotics

Kinesthetic displays are mechanical devices that are designed to apply forces and enforce positions at different contact sites on a user under computer control. These devices have great potential, and are finding application in a wide variety of rehabilitation related applications. Exam- ples of these devices include force-reflecting joysticks for wheel-chair control, six degree-of-freedom head-input devices for improved assistive robot dexterity, and haptic displays to aid in the visualization of mathematical surfaces for students with visual impairments. Since a kinesthetic display is effectively a robot which operates in intimate proximity to the user, it is essential that safety issues be taken into consideration in their design and installation so that their many advantages can be enjoyed while presenting minimal risk to the user and their surroundings.

A body powered rehabilitation robot

This paper describes a wheelchair mounted, gravity balanced, mechanical arm whose end point is controlled and powered by a functional body part of the user, via Bowden cables. Two important design features are adaptability to different user input sites and ability to provide external power augmentation. The salient design features of such a system and the development of a prototype are described.

Development of the mobile robot system to aid the daily life for physically handicapped (interface using internet browser)

People who care for physically handicapped persons have great burdens in mind and body, the problem of care for them will become a social problem. We are trying to solve this problem by developing a small mobile robot system. The purpose of this system is to pick up and bring daily using objects putting them somewhere indoors semi-automatically. This mobile robot system consists of a manipulator, a mobile unit, a visual sensor, a control computer, an operator console and a wireless LAN modem. This system gives the information about the surrounding area to the operator through the visual sensor and the operator console. The operator can control the mobile robot on an internet browser, it can be controlled from any type of computer and any place. The operator console using internet browser is very simple and easy to operate the robot, the communication method using computer network makes it possible to extend the service area of mobile robot.

The development of RAIL (Robotic Aid to Independent Living)

The aim of the RAIL project is to further develop the Handy 1 rehabilitation robot [1] to enable severely disabled people to gain/regain independence in several important daily living activities such as: eating, drinking, washing, shaving, teeth cleaning and applying make-up. To-date no single system, robotic or otherwise exists that is capable of assisting severely disabled people to gain freedom in these tasks. Over the past 20 years, there have been many attempts at developing robotic devices to improve the lives of people with disabilities. The most significant commercial developments and achievements in rehabilitation robotics to date, can be summarised as follows: In the USA, Larry Leifer Stanford University designed a robotic workstation, De VAR (Desktop Vocational Assistant Robot), which, under voice control, enabled computer programmers with disabilities to return to work. The cost of this system at around £50,000 is expensive. In Europe, the main commercial developments have come from Kwee (Netherlands), who designed a demountable wheelchair robotic manipulator system- the MANUS teletheses. This is a purpose built robotic arm, used by disabled people to pick up and manipulate objects. The cost of this system is around £30,000. The 'Handy 1' developed in the UK by Mike Topping is the world's most successful and widely used rehabilitation robotic system to-date [2], with over 120 units placed. Originally designed to provide independence at mealtimes to the severely disabled, its cost, at £4,000, is low in comparison to all other commercial developments.

An overview of Handy 1, a rehabilitation robot for the severely disabled

The Handy 1 was developed in 1987 by Mike Topping to assist an 11 year old boy with cerebral palsy to eat unaided. The system is the most successful low-cost, commercially available robotic system in the world todate capable of assisting the most severely disabled with several everyday functions.

Telediagnosis and remote maintenance system through the Internet for the Manus robot

The aim of this research work is to develop a telediagnosis and remote maintenance system for rehabilitation tools. This project is based on the use of the MANUS II arm robot which is mounted on an electrical wheelchair and which permits the telemanipulation of objects in an non-structured environment. Part of the European Commanus project (Biomed-Craft DG XII), based on robotics and telecommunication, brings together the Netherlands, Great Britain, and France. This research project, started in November 1998 and continuing for two years, will develop deep hardware and software organisation of the Manus as the current hardware and software structure is expensive, old-fashioned, and prevents further functional upgrades. An additional problem is that it’s long and difficult to maintain as the Manus is custom-made and there is only a limited number of technicians in Europe able to repair it. As it is desirable to be able to maintain Manus at a distance in a short time, one of the aims of this project is to have Manus remotely maintainable. To reach this goal, a technical task was defined in oder to innovative remote maintenance device which would enable the manufacturer or/and the provider to maintain Manus via the Internet network.

Design of a six-axis input device for a robotic manipulation aid

The applicability of robotic manipulation aids for the physically handicapped depends largely on the device used as the man/machine interface. Commanding a system to perform a task is possible through keyboards or by voice, but guiding the motion of a mechanical arm requires an analogic input device, such as a joystick, for effective, real-time control. The design of a six degree-of-freedom joystick is discussed; a prototype implementation is described; and its role as an effective assistive device is postulated.

Use of a rehabilitation robot in a classroom setting

The Vocational Training Facility (VTF) has developed a three-workstation classroom as part of a project to test a new approach to the vocational training of students with physical disabilities. The three workstations are equipped with an array of devices and software to facilitate the access of curriculum and daily-living materials to the students. One of the devices in each workstation is the Desktop Vocational Assistant Robot (DeVAR), developed over a period of four years prior to VTF, and tested in clinical and vocational settings by users with high-level quadriplegia. This article describes the use of DeVAR in a classroom setting, and how the tasks and settings compare to previous environments.

VA/Stanford Rehabilitation Robotics R&D Program: lessons learned in the application of robotics technology to the field of rehabilitation

The Rehabilitation R&D Center of the Palo Alto VA teamed up with the Stanford University Department of Mechanical Engineering in 1978 under the leadership of Prof. Larry Leifer to start a rehabilitation robotics program that has benefited from five major funding cycles to date. Many lessons were learned along the way, mostly through the interactions between engineering staff, clinical staff, persons with high level quadriplegia who served as test subjects and their families and attendants. The prototypes that were developed acted as sounding boards, revealing what worked, what did not, what had promise, what was realistic given state-of-the-art elements, and when the level of technology allowed a certain feature to be usable in a daily use environment. This paper examines the chronology of the program with a special emphasis on broad-scope effects. References to discussions of individual aspects and studies are provided.

Dual-character based user interface design for an assistive robot

The usefulness of an assistive robot is determined largely by the quality of its user interface. This design concept paper describes a novel, dual-character interface for users who are not robot engineers, in this case people with severe physical disabilities and the therapists responsible for their rehabilitation. The graphical user interface, embodying Jiminey, the smart consultant/coach, and Pinocchio, the down-to-earth arm itself, is designed to allow the operators to create, modify and execute manipulation tasks using a small desktop robot system called ProVAR. The concept is heavily influenced by the theory of Social Responses to Communication Technologies (SRCT) and research at Stanford University and elsewhere showing the power of teams in complex command, design and learning scenarios. Follow-on clinical studies will be conducted to validate the ProVAR dual-character concept.

An integration implementation using an M3S infrastructure with considerations for users, prescribers and developers

There are a wide range of technical aids available to persons with disabilities; these devices help them in their activities of daily living. This paper examines the applicability and appropriateness of the proposed rehabilitation communications standard, M3S, both in concept and implementation, in the context of three former clients with high level spinal cord injury who are users of technology. This paper also describes an M3S system implementation presently underway, and concludes by proposing one way in which M3S may be promoted, disseminated, and (ultimately) incorporated by rehabilitation developers, manufacturers and prescribers in North America.

Index